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Today in 1908, an enormous explosion occurred near the Tunguska River in Siberia. The blast had the equivalent energy of between 10 and 15 million tons of TNT, but while the available evidence points to a likely cause of the event, no conclusive proof has ever been made public. More than a century after it took place, the Tunguska event remains one of the greatest mysteries of the 20th century.
Central Siberia was, and remains today, a remote wilderness. Even so, there were witnesses to the event. Near Lake Baikal, villagers saw a bluish light move across the sky at 7:15AM; they described it as being brighter than the sun. 10 minutes later, there was a bright flash and a sharp noise that sounded like artillery fire. When the shock wave arrived, it knocked people off their feet and broke windows. It was so strong that people felt its force hundreds of miles away. In England, barographs, used to measure atmospheric pressure, showed fluctuations from the explosion. That night, and for weeks thereafter, night skies in the northern hemisphere contained a strange glow so bright it allowed people to read outside. In the United States, the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the Mount Wilson Observatory observed a decrease in atmospheric transparency that lasted for several months, believed to have been caused by dust suspended high in the atmosphere.
The remoteness of the Tunguska area coupled with the chaos present in Europe during World War One, the Russian revolution of 1917 and the subsequent civil war meant that a scientific expedition did not study the explosion site until 1921. What the researchers found was astonishing. At what should have been the impact point for whatever fell out of the sky, a stand of trees stood with their branches and bark stripped. Outward from there, for a distance of nearly 40 miles, every tree was laid flat. Aerial photos made of the area in 1938 showed that the trees were knocked down in a sort of butterfly-shaped pattern. Still, there was no crater to be seen. Whatever came to earth that day seemed to have exploded in mid-air.
Further expeditions to the site found tiny glass spheres embedded in the soil. The spheres were found to contain iridium and nickel in close proportion to the concentrations found in some meteorites. These findings led scientists to conclude that the most likely cause of the explosion was a meteoroid which exploded several miles above the Earth’s surface. This would explain the lack of a crater and the upright trees found at ground zero. Model testing concluded that the butterfly-shaped damage pattern could have been caused by an object approaching the Earth at a 30 degree angle.
Of course, not all researchers agree on what happened at Tunguska. One competing theory states that the object was a comet. Comets are composed mainly of dust and ice, so one exploding high in the atmosphere would leave no trace and would help explain the bright night sky observed after the explosion. Geologists have discovered that the region in question was once very volcanic. Therefore, a theory has been put forward stating that nothing fell from the sky, but rather a large pocket of methane from the Earth exploded. This type of explosion has happened on a smaller scale at other locations around the globe, so it is not implausible.
From there, the hypotheses grow more and more incredible. Two researchers put forth a theory in 1973 that a small black hole passed through the Earth and caused the damage. If true, then there would have to be an “exit wound” on the other side of the Earth; none has been found. Three scientists hypothesized in 1965 that the explosion was caused by a chunk of anti-matter. What the scientists failed to explain was how the anti-matter got so close to the Earth without being annihilated by regular matter higher in the atmosphere. Ufologists have long theorized that an alien spacecraft could have caused the incident.
The fact that Tunguska is located in an area that was once part of the Soviet Union made study of the region even more difficult after the Second World War as mistrust of Western researchers grew. Some of the photographic evidence collected by Soviet scientists in the late 1930's was destroyed 40 years later, possibly because of professional rivalries inside the Communist state. By the time the USSR collapsed at the end of 1991, the Tunguska event had become a dim memory among scientists and even those interested in the mystery found the prospect of traveling to central Siberia daunting.
But research has continued. In 2007, scientists from the University of Bologna identified Lake Checko, a small body of water in the Tunguska region about five miles from the center of the event, as a possible impact crater from the event. They do not dispute that the Tunguska object exploded in midair but believe that a one-meter fragment survived the explosion and impacted with the ground. This hypothesis has been disputed by other impact crater specialists for 50 years. A 1961 investigation dismissed the theory, saying that the presence of deep silt deposits on the lake bed suggest an age of at least 5,000 years, but recent research concluded that only a few feet of the sediment layer on the lake bed is "normal”, a depth indicating a lake of possibly only 100 years in age. Soundings revealed a conical shape for the lake bed, which is consistent with an impact crater. Magnetic readings show a possible meter-sized chunk of rock below the lake's deepest point that may be a fragment of the object. Finally, the lake's long axis points to the center of the Tunguska explosion. After two years of research, the University published the scientists' findings, concluding that the lake was created by a meter-long chunk of rock that had to have come from whatever exploded over the Tunguska region in 1908. As of this writing, no sample of that rock has been retrieved.
Eugene Shoemaker of Shoemaker-Levy fame estimated that explosions like that which took place over Tunguska occur every 300 years. If this is accurate, then it is important to understand exactly what happened that morning over a century ago because it will happen again, be it tomorrow or centuries from now.
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Tuesday, June 21, 2011
Washington-Moscow Hotline Established, June 20, 1963
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Today in 1963, representatives of the United States and the Soviet Union signed the “Memorandum of Understanding Regarding the Establishment of a Direct Communications Line” in Geneva, Switzerland. The technical details of this agreement were physically manifested several months later when the Moscow-Washington hotline was completed, allowing direct communication between the leaders of the world's two superpowers for the first time. Known as the Hot Line or the Red Phone in popular culture, the system has become part of the mythology of the Cold War.
In the decade following the end of the Second World War in 1945, both the Soviet Union and the United States created enormous stockpiles of nuclear weapons. Bombers armed with freefall nuclear weapons were kept in a constant state of readiness by both sides; later, these bombers would be supplemented by thousands of intercontinental ballistic missiles buried deep in silos or carried aboard submarines. At any given moment, the world could be as little as 30 minutes away from nuclear annihilation.
By 1954, leaders in Washington and Moscow realized that a direct, secure line of communications was needed between their two nations. The Soviets floated the idea publicly for the first time that year, and in 1958 the United States proposed that both nations take part in the Conference of Experts on Surprise Attack in Geneva, Switzerland. No agreement was reached during the conference, but the seeds of an understanding had been sown. Things moved slowly in Cold War diplomatic circles, and the next four years saw almost no concrete progress towards establishing any type of communications system meant to act as a safeguard.
The Cuban Missile Crisis of October, 1962, changed that. For two weeks that month, the world stood on the brink of an all-out war, a conflagration that would have undoubtedly included the use of nuclear weapons against the United States, the Soviet Union and most of Europe. The standoff demonstrated how difficult it was for the two nations' leaders to communicate directly. For example, it took the U.S. nearly 12 hours to receive and decode Nikita Khrushchev's 3,000 word initial settlement message. By the time a reply had been written and edited by the White House, Moscow had sent another, tougher message. A faster, more direct means of contact was a necessity if the world was to avoid a third world war.
The Moscow-Washington hotline began operation in August, 1963. When most people think of the hotline, they imagine a serious-looking red phone sitting on the President's desk in the Oval Office and its twin sitting on the desk of the Soviet Premier in the Kremlin. In fact, while voice communications are believed to be technically possible over the line, the device used to send messages when the system became operational was the teletype machine. The use of text removed some of the human traits that can show up during a voice conversation. It is reasonable to assume that a nation's leader could be tired, angry, frustrated, or confused while speaking with his opposite number thousand of miles and eight time zones away. Text would reduce the chance of poor translation, give each side time to consider the others message before replying, and prevent a leader’s tone of voice from being misinterpreted. The telegraph circuit was routed Washington-London-Copenhagen-Stockholm-Helsinki-Moscow, and a radio link was routed Washington-Tangier-Moscow as a back up.
The establishment of a direct link between Washington and Moscow caused some diplomatic upheaval in western nations, specifically the United Kingdom. Since the physical line between the two capitals ran through London, the British proposed that they be allowed access to any conversation taking place on it. They could then consult with Washington, instead of being informed of disagreements after they had been settled. While this would have gone a long way towards strengthening the special relationship that exists between London and Washington, the administration of President Kennedy believed that a three-way conversation in times of crisis might be counter-productive. It was also obvious that if London were given access to the hotline, other NATO member nations would want the same thing. The tension that arose was abated, however, when both the Soviets and the Americans made it clear that the line was only to be used in the event of an emergency where the failure to communicate directly might lead to an all-out war. It would not be used for situations that called for regular diplomatic channels.
The hotline was first used during the Six Day War between Egypt and Israel in June, 1967. The Soviet Black Sea Fleet and the US 6th Fleet were both operating in the Mediterranean at that time and both fleets had elements located close to the war zone. To avoid any confusion about intentions, Moscow and Washington kept each other informed of their fleets’ operations until the war was over.
The 1970’s saw relatively heavy use of the hotline, much of it outside the agreed-upon parameters put in place when the system was established. It was used during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus and in 1979 when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. None of these events rose to the level of a nuclear standoff between the two superpowers, but the use of the line allowed leaders to discuss events in real time, something that would have been difficult using normal diplomatic procedures.
The hotline was used several times during the 1980’s, but less frequently than during the previous decade. The line had gone through a rolling upgrade between 1971 and 1978, a process that included the addition of fax machines on each end so documents and photographs could be exchanged. It was during this time that the backup radio link was discarded in favor of two geosynchronous satellites, one Soviet and one American. Another upgrade in 1986 saw the use of newer satellites and faster transmission capabilities.
There have doubtless been upgrades to the hotline in the past 25 years, but technical details have yet to be made public. The system is still active and in use, despite the fact that one of the original agreement's signatories, the Soviet Union, no longer exists. Today, the hotline links the governments of the United States and Russia, who between them own the vast majority of the nuclear weapons on the planet. Other hotlines now connect various seats of power around the world, the latest being a direct connection between India and Pakistan, in use since June, 2004.
So did the hotline between Washington and Moscow prevent the Cold War from becoming hot? We may never know for sure. While some of the incidents in which the system was used have been publicized, it is probable that many have not and may never be. What is certain is that the Red Phone, as the Soviets liked to call the hotline, made a nuclear exchange less likely due simply to its existence.
Today in 1963, representatives of the United States and the Soviet Union signed the “Memorandum of Understanding Regarding the Establishment of a Direct Communications Line” in Geneva, Switzerland. The technical details of this agreement were physically manifested several months later when the Moscow-Washington hotline was completed, allowing direct communication between the leaders of the world's two superpowers for the first time. Known as the Hot Line or the Red Phone in popular culture, the system has become part of the mythology of the Cold War.
In the decade following the end of the Second World War in 1945, both the Soviet Union and the United States created enormous stockpiles of nuclear weapons. Bombers armed with freefall nuclear weapons were kept in a constant state of readiness by both sides; later, these bombers would be supplemented by thousands of intercontinental ballistic missiles buried deep in silos or carried aboard submarines. At any given moment, the world could be as little as 30 minutes away from nuclear annihilation.
By 1954, leaders in Washington and Moscow realized that a direct, secure line of communications was needed between their two nations. The Soviets floated the idea publicly for the first time that year, and in 1958 the United States proposed that both nations take part in the Conference of Experts on Surprise Attack in Geneva, Switzerland. No agreement was reached during the conference, but the seeds of an understanding had been sown. Things moved slowly in Cold War diplomatic circles, and the next four years saw almost no concrete progress towards establishing any type of communications system meant to act as a safeguard.
The Cuban Missile Crisis of October, 1962, changed that. For two weeks that month, the world stood on the brink of an all-out war, a conflagration that would have undoubtedly included the use of nuclear weapons against the United States, the Soviet Union and most of Europe. The standoff demonstrated how difficult it was for the two nations' leaders to communicate directly. For example, it took the U.S. nearly 12 hours to receive and decode Nikita Khrushchev's 3,000 word initial settlement message. By the time a reply had been written and edited by the White House, Moscow had sent another, tougher message. A faster, more direct means of contact was a necessity if the world was to avoid a third world war.
The Moscow-Washington hotline began operation in August, 1963. When most people think of the hotline, they imagine a serious-looking red phone sitting on the President's desk in the Oval Office and its twin sitting on the desk of the Soviet Premier in the Kremlin. In fact, while voice communications are believed to be technically possible over the line, the device used to send messages when the system became operational was the teletype machine. The use of text removed some of the human traits that can show up during a voice conversation. It is reasonable to assume that a nation's leader could be tired, angry, frustrated, or confused while speaking with his opposite number thousand of miles and eight time zones away. Text would reduce the chance of poor translation, give each side time to consider the others message before replying, and prevent a leader’s tone of voice from being misinterpreted. The telegraph circuit was routed Washington-London-Copenhagen-Stockholm-Helsinki-Moscow, and a radio link was routed Washington-Tangier-Moscow as a back up.
The establishment of a direct link between Washington and Moscow caused some diplomatic upheaval in western nations, specifically the United Kingdom. Since the physical line between the two capitals ran through London, the British proposed that they be allowed access to any conversation taking place on it. They could then consult with Washington, instead of being informed of disagreements after they had been settled. While this would have gone a long way towards strengthening the special relationship that exists between London and Washington, the administration of President Kennedy believed that a three-way conversation in times of crisis might be counter-productive. It was also obvious that if London were given access to the hotline, other NATO member nations would want the same thing. The tension that arose was abated, however, when both the Soviets and the Americans made it clear that the line was only to be used in the event of an emergency where the failure to communicate directly might lead to an all-out war. It would not be used for situations that called for regular diplomatic channels.
The hotline was first used during the Six Day War between Egypt and Israel in June, 1967. The Soviet Black Sea Fleet and the US 6th Fleet were both operating in the Mediterranean at that time and both fleets had elements located close to the war zone. To avoid any confusion about intentions, Moscow and Washington kept each other informed of their fleets’ operations until the war was over.
The 1970’s saw relatively heavy use of the hotline, much of it outside the agreed-upon parameters put in place when the system was established. It was used during the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War, the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus and in 1979 when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan. None of these events rose to the level of a nuclear standoff between the two superpowers, but the use of the line allowed leaders to discuss events in real time, something that would have been difficult using normal diplomatic procedures.
The hotline was used several times during the 1980’s, but less frequently than during the previous decade. The line had gone through a rolling upgrade between 1971 and 1978, a process that included the addition of fax machines on each end so documents and photographs could be exchanged. It was during this time that the backup radio link was discarded in favor of two geosynchronous satellites, one Soviet and one American. Another upgrade in 1986 saw the use of newer satellites and faster transmission capabilities.
There have doubtless been upgrades to the hotline in the past 25 years, but technical details have yet to be made public. The system is still active and in use, despite the fact that one of the original agreement's signatories, the Soviet Union, no longer exists. Today, the hotline links the governments of the United States and Russia, who between them own the vast majority of the nuclear weapons on the planet. Other hotlines now connect various seats of power around the world, the latest being a direct connection between India and Pakistan, in use since June, 2004.
So did the hotline between Washington and Moscow prevent the Cold War from becoming hot? We may never know for sure. While some of the incidents in which the system was used have been publicized, it is probable that many have not and may never be. What is certain is that the Red Phone, as the Soviets liked to call the hotline, made a nuclear exchange less likely due simply to its existence.
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